Definition

Cone shaped artificial glaciers created by freezing water in winter for use in spring.

Origin

Ladakh, India developed by Sonam Wangchuk (SECMOL) now adopted in Gilgit-Baltistan etc.

Shape

Buddhist stupa like conical structures designed to minimize surface area exposed to sun.

Construction Method

Water is piped from upstream sources & sprayed into freezing air to form ice.

Water Source

Gravity fed stream or pipe system from upstream meltwater or springs.

Seasonal Cycle

Formed in winter (Oct–Feb); gradually melts in spring (March–May).

Primary Purpose

Provides water during early spring when natural glacier melt hasn't started.

Benefits

Enables early sowing, increases crop cycles, reduces water stress, cost-effective.

Volume Capacity

One stupa can store 500,000 to 1 million liters of water; large systems reach 20 million L.

Global Adoption

Used in India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan; being studied in Switzerland, Chile.

Terrain

Steep slopes, terraced agriculture, limited arable land.

Climatic Stress

Warming trends, declining snowfall, early snowmelt & erratic rainfall patterns.

Water Dependency

Spring snowmelt & glacial runoff are primary irrigation sources.

Major Crops

Barley, wheat, potatoes, buckwheat, peas, mustard.

Farming Systems

Mixed cropping, subsistence farming, agro-pastoralism.

Challenges

Short growing seasons, unpredictable water availability, flash floods, GLOFs.

Adaptive Measures

Ice stupas, polyhouses, rainwater harvesting, drip irrigation, glacier grafting.

Institutional Support

ICIMOD, SECMOL, UNDP-GLOF II, Ladakh Ecological Development Group (LEDeG).

Ice Stupa Project, Ladakh

India

Initiated by Sonam Wangchuk; now scaled across 25+ villages in Ladakh.

GLOF II Project, GB

Pakistan

Over 20 villages in Gilgit-Baltistan using ice stupas; 16,000+ people benefitting.

Glacier Grafting, Himachal

India

High-altitude glacial recharge using shaded trenches to grow glaciers.

Zanskar Artificial Glacier

India

Stream-diverted & stored in shaded valleys to increase spring water availability.

Nepal Glacial Reservoirs

Nepal

Snow & ice harvesting for spring irrigation in Mustang & Dolpo regions.

Chile Andes Test Project

Chile

Piloting snow-harvesting systems to sustain water for vineyards in semi-arid Andes.

Primary Water Source

Early-season melt from seasonal snow & ice; supplemented by ice stupas.

Seasonal Importance

Critical for sowing of rabi crops before natural glacier melt starts (March–April).

Irrigation Techniques

Gravity flow channels, kuhls (Himachal), drip systems, polytank storage.

Role of Ice Stupas

Bridge water availability gap from March to May.

Challenges

Delay in snowmelt, unseasonal warmth, infrastructure loss due to flash floods.

Sustainability Measures

Community-led water scheduling, localized water harvesting, renewable energy pumps.

Policy Support

National Mission on Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE), ICIMOD support, UNDP aid.

Indian Easements Act

1882

Recognizes customary rights to water usage; forms basis for individual access but does not regulate scarcity.

Environment (Protection) Act

1986

Empowers central government to regulate & control water pollution & enforce environmental quality standards.

Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act

1974

Focuses on preventing water pollution & maintaining/ restoring wholesomeness of water.

Inter-State Water Disputes Act

1956

Mechanism for resolving water sharing conflicts between states (e.g Cauvery, Krishna disputes).

National Water Policy (latest: NWP Draft)

1987, 2002, 2012, Draft 2019

Promotes integrated water resources management; focuses on conservation, reuse & pricing.

Groundwater (Model) Bills

1970–2017

Various versions suggest regulatory frameworks; however groundwater is still unregulated in many states.

Mines & Minerals Act

1957

Regulates use of water in mining; indirect implication for water table stress in mining areas.

Urban & Rural Local Government Acts

Varies

Empower municipalities/panchayats to manage water supply, conservation, rainwater harvesting etc.

River Boards Act

1956

Enables central government to establish river boards for inter-state river management; largely unused.

Disaster Management Act

2005

Includes drought & water scarcity under disaster risks; provides relief & mitigation frameworks.

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)

2005

Promotes water conservation projects (e.g check dams, ponds, bunding) in rural areas under employment scheme.

Right to Safe Drinking Water (implied under Article 21)

–

Recognized by courts as part of Right to Life under Article 21 of Constitution of India.

Model Bill for Conservation, Protection, Regulation & Management of Groundwater (Draft)

2016

Aims for participatory, community led groundwater governance model; not yet enacted uniformly.

Jal Shakti Abhiyan / Jal Jeevan Mission

2019 to ongoing

Flagship schemes for groundwater recharge, piped water supply, water harvesting.

Public Trust Doctrine

Water is a public resource held in trust by state; cannot be privatized absolutely.

Right to Water

Implied under Right to Life (Article 21); upheld by Supreme Court in multiple cases.

Polluter Pays Principle

Those causing water pollution must compensate for damage.

Precautionary Principle

Preventive approach to avoid environmental harm in water-related development.

Central Ground Water Board (CGWB)

Monitors & manages groundwater resources.

Ministry of Jal Shakti

Responsible for water resources management, drinking water & sanitation policies.

State Water Resources Departments

Implement water conservation, irrigation & supply at state level.

NITI Aayog Composite Water Management Index

Tracks water performance of states; encourages reforms.

PRACTICE QUESTION

Q. Evaluate effectiveness of Jal Shakti Abhiyan & Jal Jeevan Mission in addressing rural water scarcity.