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Context

A government commissioned survey in Pakistan Attock district has identified significant gold deposits in Indus River with experts suggesting that these reserves originate from the Himalayas in India sparking economic & geopolitical discussions.

Indus River

Origin and Course of the Indus River

Indus River originates from Lake Mansarovar in Tibetan Plateau (China) at an altitude of about 5,500 meters.

From Tibet river flows northwest into Ladakh (India) before entering Pakistan eventually draining into Arabian Sea near Karachi.

Length: Approximately 3,180 km

Drainage Area: Around 1.1 million sq. km spanning Tibet (China), India, and Pakistan

Annual Discharge: Estimated at 243 cubic km

Major Uses: Irrigation, hydropower, drinking water, industrial use

Indus River Flow Through Different Regions

Tibet (China): Originates from Bokhar Chu (near Lake Mansarovar)

India (Ladakh, J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab): Receives tributaries like Zanskar, Shyok, Chenab

Pakistan: Flows through Gilgit-Baltistan & Punjab joining  Arabian Sea

Indus Valley Civilization  - Ancient Civilization (3300 BCE - 1300 BCE)

Indus Valley Civilization also known as Harappan Civilization flourished along Indus River & its tributaries. It was one of three oldest urban civilizations alongside Mesopotamia & Ancient Egypt.

Highly Developed Urban Centers:

• Mohenjo-Daro(Sindh, Pakistan) – Largest city with advanced drainage
• Harappa(Punjab, Pakistan) – First discovered site
• Dholavira(Gujarat, India) – Known for its water conservation system
• Lothal(Gujarat, India) – Famous for its dockyard
• Kalibangan(Rajasthan, India) – Evidence of fire altars

Achievements:

• Planned Cities: Houses made of baked bricks, grid like streets
• Advanced Drainage: Underground sewage systems
• Trade and Economy: Maritime trade with Mesopotamia, agricultural economy
• Writing System: Indus Script(undeciphered)
• Use of Gold: Evidence of gold jewellery & coins

Decline Theories:

• Climate Change
• Drying of Saraswati River
• Aryan Migration

Indus Waters Treaty Between India & Pakistan

Indus Waters Treaty signed on September 19, 1960 was brokered by World Bank to resolve water sharing disputes between India & Pakistan.

Key Provisions of Treaty:

Division of Rivers:

Eastern Rivers (Controlled by India): Ravi, Beas, Sutlej

Western Rivers (Controlled by Pakistan): Indus, Jhelum, Chenab

India Rights Over Western Rivers:

Can use water for hydropower, navigation, and agriculture, but cannot significantly alter flow

Dispute Resolution Mechanism:

Permanent Indus Commission (PIC) to resolve conflicts

World Bank involvement in case of major disputes

Current Issues:

Pakistan objects to India hydropower projects like Kishanganga, Baglihar, Ratle

India considers reviewing the treaty due to security concerns

Tributaries of Indus River

Left-Bank (Eastern) Tributaries (Mainly in India):

Sutlej River – Originates in Tibet flows through Punjab, joins the Indus

Beas River – Originates in Himachal Pradesh merges with Sutlej

Ravi River – Originates in Himachal Pradesh joins Chenab

Right-Bank (Western) Tributaries (Mainly in Pakistan & India):

Jhelum River – Originates in Verinag (J&K) joins Chenab

Chenab River – Formed by Chandra and Bhaga Rivers joins Indus

Kabul River – Originates in Afghanistan joins Indus near Attock

Shyok River – Originates in Ladakh joins Indus in Gilgit-Baltistan

Zanskar River – Originates in Ladakh joins Indus at Nimmu

Economic & Geopolitical Importance of Indus River

1. Economic Importance

Agriculture:

Indus Basin supports 90% of Pakistan agriculture

Key crops: Wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane

Hydropower Generation:

India Baglihar, Kishanganga, Ratle projects

Pakistan Tarbela, Mangla, Neelum Jhelum dams

Trade & Navigation: Historically used for trade between India & Mesopotamia

1. Geopolitical Significance

India-Pakistan Relations:

Pakistan dependence on Indus water makes it a key factor in diplomacy

India can leverage water control as a strategic tool

China Role:

China controls Indus headwaters in Tibet giving it indirect influence

Potential water disputes in the future

Recent Developments & Challenges

1. Climate Change & Indus River

Glacial Melt: Indus is heavily dependent on Himalayan glaciers which are melting due to climate change

Floods & Droughts: Increased unpredictability in monsoon patterns

1. Water Scarcity & Future Disputes

India’s Water Projects: Pakistan has raised concerns over Indian projects under IWT

Population Growth: Rising water demand in both India & Pakistan

1. Discovery of Gold in Indus River

Pakistan has found gold deposits worth ₹80,000 crore in Attock, Punjab

Gold originates from Himalayan erosion in Indian-controlled territories

Economic boost for Pakistan but raises concerns over ecological damage

Laws Governing Indus Waters Treaty

1. Indus Waters Treaty, 1960

Signed on: September 19, 1960

Brokered by: World Bank (then International Bank for Reconstruction & Development - IBRD)

Parties: India & Pakistan

Division of Rivers:

• Eastern Rivers (India Control): Ravi, Beas, Sutlej
• Western Rivers (Pakistan Control): Indus, Jhelum, Chenab
• India can use Western Rivers waterfor non-consumptive purposes like hydroelectric power, navigation, agriculture

2. Key Legal Provisions of IWT
3. Water Allocation & Usage

India cannot divert or obstruct the flow of Western Rivers except for limited storage & hydro projects

India can use up to 3.6 million acre-feet (MAF) of water for agricultural purposes from Western Rivers

Pakistan has exclusive rights over 80% of total Indus Basin water

1. Dispute Resolution Mechanism

Permanent Indus Commission (PIC): Comprises one commissioner from each country. Meets annually to discuss water-sharing issues

Neutral Expert (NE): In case of technical disputes (e.g. hydro projects) an expert is appointed by the World Bank

Court of Arbitration (CoA): If diplomatic or expert resolution fails seven-member tribunal is formed under the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) The Hague

3. International Laws Applicable to IWT
4. Customary International Law on Transboundary Rivers

Helsinki Rules (1966): Principle of equitable and reasonable utilization of water resources, Protects downstream nations (like Pakistan)

UN Convention on the Law of Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses (1997): Advocates for no significant harm to riparian states, India & Pakistan are NOT signatories but principles influence dispute resolutions

1. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969): Treaty obligations must be respected and followed in good faith(Pacta Sunt Servanda). A treaty cannot be revoked unilaterally
2. Recent Legal Disputes & Developments
3. Kishanganga & Ratle Hydropower Dispute (2013-Present)

Pakistan objected to India’s Kishanganga (Jhelum) and Ratle (Chenab) projects

Neutral Expert vs. Court of Arbitration:

Pakistan sought Court of Arbitration (CoA) at the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA), The Hague

India wanted resolution through a Neutral Expert

World Bank paused intervention but later allowed both processes to proceed simultaneously

1. India’s Consideration of Treaty Review (2023)

India sent a notice to Pakistan in January 2023 seeking a review of IWT due to:

Pakistan repeated objections to Indian projects

Changing geopolitical & hydrological conditions

2025 updates on Indus Waters Treaty

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Sources:

DECCAN HERALD