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Context

• Researchers from Princeton University discovered that C. elegans worms, after consuming a disease-causing strain of bacteria, passed on the knowledge of avoiding the same bacteria to their progeny for up to four generations.
• Published in PLoS Genetics, the study revealed that the worms learned to avoid feeding on the disease-causing bacteria through a small RNA molecule produced by the bacteria, which altered the worms' feeding behavior.

Details

• Caenorhabditis elegans: Often referred to as "the worm," C. elegans is a microscopic roundworm widely used in research for studying neuronal and molecular biology.
• Genome Sequencing: elegans was the first multicellular organism to have its full genome sequenced and its neural wiring mapped, making it an invaluable model organism for scientific research.

Mechanism of Transmission

• Small RNA (sRNA): The disease-causing bacterium, Pseudomonas vranovensis, produces sRNA, which is ingested by the worms along with the bacteria.
• Behavioral Modification: The sRNA modifies the worms' feeding behavior, causing them to avoid consuming the disease-causing bacteria, thereby protecting themselves from illness.
• sRNA Function: sRNA molecules, unlike messenger RNA (mRNA), regulate gene expression by binding to other proteins and RNAs, thereby modulating the expression of specific genes.

Experimental Findings

• Researchers engineered Escherichia coli bacteria to express the P. vranovensis sRNA and fed them to the worms in the laboratory.
• Worms exposed to the engineered bacteria learned to avoid pathogenic strains of P. vranovensis, and this behavior was inherited by their offspring.
• The trans-generational behavioral modification persisted for several generations but decayed over time, suggesting a mechanism for "memory loss" in subsequent generations.

Significance of C. elegans Research

• Discoveries based on studying C. elegans were recognised by Nobel Prizes in 2002, 2006, and 2008. This tiny worm has played an outsized role in the advancement of scientific and medical research.
• For example, a gene that triggers a process during C. elegans’s development has been found in the human genome, and mutations in it have been associated with limb deformities.
• So a question arises: whether our bodies can also take up sRNA molecules from the microbes in our gut, mouth or vagina, and whether they can modify our behaviour, and possibly the behaviour of our children and later generations.

About RNA

• RNA, or ribonucleic acid, is a nucleic acid molecule that plays essential roles in gene expression, protein synthesis, and regulation of cellular processes.
• Composition: Similar to DNA, RNA is composed of nucleotides containing a sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogenous bases (adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine).
• Types of RNA: RNA exists in several forms, including messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), microRNA (miRNA), and long non-coding RNA (lncRNA), each with distinct functions.

Functions of RNA:

• Gene Expression: RNA mediates the transfer of genetic information from DNA to protein by transcribing DNA sequences into mRNA, which serves as a template for protein synthesis.
• Transcription: During transcription, RNA polymerase catalyzes the synthesis of mRNA molecules complementary to DNA templates, resulting in the formation of pre-mRNA.
• Processing: Pre-mRNA undergoes post-transcriptional modifications, including capping, splicing, and polyadenylation, to generate mature mRNA molecules capable of translation.
• Translation: In translation, mRNA is translated by ribosomes into polypeptide chains, with the aid of tRNA molecules that deliver amino acids to the ribosome according to the mRNA sequence.

Types of RNA:

• Messenger RNA (mRNA): mRNA carries genetic information from the DNA in the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where it serves as a template for protein synthesis.
• Transfer RNA (tRNA): tRNA molecules decode the genetic information in mRNA by carrying specific amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis.
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): rRNA is a component of ribosomes, the cellular machinery responsible for protein synthesis, where it catalyzes peptide bond formation between amino acids.
• MicroRNA (miRNA): miRNAs are small non-coding RNAs involved in post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression by binding to target mRNAs and inhibiting translation or promoting mRNA degradation.
• Long Non-coding RNA (lncRNA): lncRNAs are longer RNA molecules that do not encode proteins but play regulatory roles in various cellular processes, including chromatin remodeling, transcriptional regulation, and mRNA stability.

RNA Processing and Modification:

• Capping: The 5' end of pre-mRNA is modified with a 7-methylguanosine cap, which protects mRNA from degradation and facilitates translation initiation.
• Splicing: Introns, non-coding regions of pre-mRNA, are removed by the spliceosome, and exons are ligated together to generate mature mRNA transcripts.
• Polyadenylation: A polyadenine (poly-A) tail is added to the 3' end of pre-mRNA, which enhances mRNA stability and regulates mRNA export from the nucleus.

Regulation of Gene Expression by RNA:

• Transcriptional Regulation: RNA molecules, such as miRNAs and lncRNAs, regulate gene expression at the transcriptional level by modulating chromatin structure, transcription factor activity, and RNA polymerase recruitment.
• Post-transcriptional Regulation: miRNAs and RNA-binding proteins control mRNA stability and translation efficiency by binding to specific sequences within mRNA transcripts.
• Epigenetic Regulation: lncRNAs participate in epigenetic modifications, including DNA methylation and histone modification, to regulate gene expression patterns and cellular differentiation.

RNA Interference (RNAi):

• Mechanism: RNAi is a biological process that silences gene expression by degrading mRNA molecules or inhibiting translation in a sequence-specific manner, mediated by small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) or miRNAs.
• Applications: RNAi technology is widely used in research and therapeutic applications for gene knockdown, functional genomics, and development of RNA-based therapeutics for diseases such as cancer, viral infections, and genetic disorders.

RNA-Based Therapeutics:

• Antisense Oligonucleotides (ASOs): ASOs are synthetic RNA molecules designed to bind complementary mRNA sequences and modulate gene expression by inducing mRNA degradation or inhibiting translation.
• RNA Vaccines: mRNA vaccines utilize synthetic mRNA molecules encoding viral antigens to elicit immune responses and provide protection against infectious diseases, such as COVID-19.
• RNAi Therapies: RNAi-based drugs target specific disease-causing genes or pathways by delivering siRNAs or miRNAs to silence gene expression, offering potential treatments for various disorders, including genetic diseases, viral infections, and cancer.

About DNA

• DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions necessary for the growth, development, functioning, and reproduction of all known living organisms.
• Composition: DNA is composed of nucleotides, which consist of a sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine).
• Double Helix Structure: DNA adopts a double helix structure, resembling a twisted ladder, with two complementary strands held together by hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases.

Functions of DNA:

• Genetic Information Storage: DNA serves as the repository of genetic information, encoding instructions for the synthesis of proteins and other molecules essential for life.
• Gene Expression: DNA regulates gene expression through processes such as transcription and translation, where genetic information is transcribed into RNA and translated into proteins, respectively.
• Inheritance: DNA is passed from parent to offspring during reproduction, ensuring the transmission of genetic traits across generations.
• Mutations: DNA undergoes mutations, or changes in its nucleotide sequence, which contribute to genetic variation and evolution within populations. 

Structure of DNA:

• Double Helix: DNA consists of two antiparallel strands that twist around each other in a helical fashion, forming the characteristic double helix structure.
• Base Pairing: Adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T), and cytosine (C) pairs with guanine (G) through hydrogen bonding, maintaining complementary base pairing.
• Sugar-Phosphate Backbone: The sugar-phosphate backbone of each DNA strand provides structural support and stability to the molecule.
• Chromosomes: DNA molecules are organized into structures called chromosomes, which are located within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and contain multiple genes.

DNA Replication:

• Semiconservative Replication: DNA replication is a semiconservative process, where each parent strand serves as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand.
• Enzymatic Machinery: Replication is carried out by enzymes such as DNA polymerase, which catalyze the addition of nucleotides to the growing DNA strand.
• Bidirectional Replication: Replication proceeds bidirectionally from replication origins, resulting in two identical daughter DNA molecules.

Genetic Code and Protein Synthesis:

• Genetic Code: The sequence of nucleotides in DNA determines the genetic code, which specifies the sequence of amino acids in proteins.
• Transcription: During transcription, the DNA sequence is transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA) by RNA polymerase, serving as a template for protein synthesis.
• Translation: In translation, mRNA is translated by ribosomes into a sequence of amino acids, forming a polypeptide chain that folds into a functional protein.

DNA Repair Mechanisms:

• DNA Damage: DNA is susceptible to damage from various sources, including UV radiation, chemical agents, and spontaneous errors during replication.
• Repair Pathways: Cells employ DNA repair mechanisms to correct damaged DNA and maintain genomic integrity, including base excision repair, nucleotide excision repair, and mismatch repair.
• Mutations and Disease: Defects in DNA repair pathways can lead to mutations, genomic instability, and the development of genetic disorders and diseases such as cancer.

Sources:

Hindu

PRACTICE QUESTION Q.  Discuss the role of RNA and DNA in the process of protein synthesis and the regulation of gene expression, highlighting their significance in molecular biology and genetics. (150 words)