This article is part of the UPSC Daily Editorial Analysis, covering The Hindu editorial – " The long and winding road of India-China relations," by the best UPSC coaching in Kolkata.

Syllabus: UPSC General Studies (GS) Paper 2: International Relations

India-China relations date back over 2,000 years, shaped by trade and Buddhism, with interactions evolving from cultural exchanges to geopolitical tensions. The 1950s saw India recognizing the PRC and signing the Panchsheel Agreement (1954), but China's annexation of Tibet and the Aksai Chin dispute led to conflicts, including the 1962 Sino-Indian War. Border tensions persist, with disputes over Ladakh, Arunachal Pradesh and the Galwan Valley, while China’s Salami Slicing strategy challenges India’s territorial integrity. Despite economic ties, India strengthens its border infrastructure and recent diplomatic efforts, like the 2025 Foreign Secretary’s visit, indicate cautious engagement. Moving forward, India must balance diplomacy with strategic caution to safeguard its national interests.

How Did India-China Relations Begin? Ancient Cultural and Economic Ties

India-China relations date back over 2,000 years, shaped by trade and Buddhism. The Silk Road facilitated commerce and cultural exchanges between the two civilizations.

How Did India and China Interact Before the 1950s?

Before the 1950s, interactions were limited to pilgrimage and minimal trade. However, after India's Independence (1947) and China's Communist Revolution (1949), geopolitical shifts altered their relationship.

How Did the Communist Revolution Shape China?

China’s Communist Revolution (1945-49), led by Mao Zedong, culminated in the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) on October 1, 1949. This transformation was driven by deep-seated societal inequalities.

Why Did India Recognize the PRC?

India was one of the first nations to cut ties with Taiwan and recognize the PRC in the 1950s, hoping to foster diplomatic relations.

How Did Tibet’s Annexation Impact India-China Relations?

Tibet had long served as a buffer between India and China. However, China’s 1950 invasion of Tibet eliminated this buffer, leading to a direct India-China border and future tensions.

How Did India and China Cooperate During World War II?

Both nations opposed Imperial Japan, marking an early phase of cooperation.

What Were the Major Border Disputes and Conflicts Between India and China?

Despite diplomacy, border tensions led to multiple military conflicts:

• 1962 Sino-Indian War
• 1967 Chola Incident
• 1987 Conflict
• 2020 Skirmishes

How Did India-China Relations Improve After the 1980s?

By 2008, China became India’s largest trading partner, yet border tensions persisted, affecting overall relations.

What Is the Current Status of India-China Relations?

Today, both nations are economic giants, but LAC standoffs continue to strain ties.

Key Events & Border Disputes

What Was the Panchsheel Agreement (1954)?

China asserted control over Tibet, leading to the Panchsheel Agreement (1954) between Nehru and Zhou Enlai, based on Five Principles:

1. Mutual respect for sovereignty
2. Non-aggression
3. Non-interference
4. Equality and mutual benefit
5. Peaceful coexistence Despite this agreement, tensions escalated over territorial disputes.

Why Is Aksai Chin a Major Dispute?

In 1957, China built a highway through Aksai Chin, which India objected to. Nehru rejected China's claims in 1960, leading to further discord.

What Was India’s Forward Policy and Its Role in the 1962 War?

• 1961: India adopted the Forward Policy to counter Chinese advances.
• 1962: China invaded Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh, capturing Tawang.
• India, unprepared, suffered heavy losses.
• A ceasefire was declared, but China retained Aksai Chin.

What Are the Key Disputed Regions Between India and China?

The Undefined 3,440 km Border Between India and China Has Three Sectors:

• Western Sector (Ladakh-Xinjiang): Aksai Chin dispute
• Middle Sector (Himachal-Uttarakhand): Least disputed
• Eastern Sector (Arunachal Pradesh-Tibet): McMahon Line dispute

Critical Border Disputes Include:

• Ladakh: Pangong Tso, Galwan Valley, Demchok, Chushul
• Himachal Pradesh: Shipki La
• Uttarakhand: Barahoti Plains
• Sikkim: Doklam, Chumbi Valley
• Arunachal Pradesh: Tawang, Namkha Chu, Sumdorong Chu

How Does China Expand Its Borders? The Salami Slicing Strategy

China uses incremental territorial advances, known as Salami Slicing, to alter ground realities without direct war.

• Examples: Aksai Chin (1950s), South China Sea encroachments

How Is India Strengthening Its Border Strategy?

Infrastructure Development

India is improving border infrastructure to enhance military mobility and connectivity:

• 255 km Darbuk-Shyok-DBO (DSDBO) road strengthens India’s strategic hold.
• Feeder roads and bridges improve operational efficiency.

Why Is the Galwan Valley Strategically Important?

• The DSDBO road runs close to Galwan Valley, a flashpoint in recent clashes.
• For China, Galwan offers a strategic vantage point over the road.
• For India, it provides access to Aksai Chin, where China’s Xinjiang-Tibet highway runs.

How Has China Reacted to India’s Infrastructure Developments?

• West of DBO lies Gilgit-Baltistan (POK), a crucial part of China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
• China aims to stall India’s border developments by using its nibble and negotiate strategy.

What Are the Recent Developments in India-China Relations?

India-China Bilateral Announcements: January 2025 Visit of Foreign Secretary Vikram Misri

Key Outcomes:

• Resumption of media and think tank exchanges
• Restoration of the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra
• Resumption of bilateral flights (expected by summer 2025)

Why Now? Possible Reasons for the Agreement

1. Impact of Donald Trump’s Election (November 2024):
   • • Increased global unpredictability pushed both nations toward reconciliation.
     • The October 2024 de-escalation agreement was a preemptive move.
2. Economic Concerns:
   • • China’s internal economic challenges have historically influenced its foreign policy.
     • Similar to 1989 post-Tiananmen normalization, China seeks stable ties with India.
3. Strategic Calculations:
   • • Despite agreements, China’s military de-escalation remains unclear.

What Is the Status of De-Escalation at the LAC?

Key Unresolved Concerns:

• Unclear troop withdrawal from Galwan, Depsang Bulge, Gogra Post and Pangong Lake.
• Patrolling rights remain ambiguous despite past agreements.
• October 2024 BRICS Summit briefing hinted at disengagement but lacked clarity.

How Do India and China Differ in Their Approach to the Border Dispute?

• India’s Stand: Restoration of status quo ante (pre-2020 conditions) as a precondition for broader bilateral progress.
• China’s Stand: Encouraging India to "move on" from the border issue and focus on economic and diplomatic ties.

What Should India’s Future Approach Be?

Need for Clarity in India’s Border Policy

• Restoration of patrolling rights and clear troop withdrawal mechanisms must be prioritized.
• Avoiding strategic ambiguity will ensure India does not fall into China’s "move on" narrative.

India-China relations have historically fluctuated between cooperation and conflict. Moving forward, India must balance diplomatic engagement with strategic caution to safeguard territorial integrity and long-term national interests.

PRACTICE QUESTION Q.Examine the evolution of India-China relations and suggest how India should balance diplomacy and security in its engagement with China. (250 words)